Creatine Benefits Beyond the Gym — Brain, Sleep and Ageing

Tom
2026-03-24T21:34:12+00:00

Creatine benefits beyond the gym: what the data shows

Most men over 30 think of creatine as something for lifting heavier. That's fair - it's one of the few supplements with a genuinely robust evidence base for physical performance. But the research has quietly expanded. There are now credible, peer-reviewed trials showing meaningful effects on cognition, mood, bone metabolism, and cardiovascular markers. Some of that evidence is strong. Some of it is early. I'll tell you which is which.

In this article

1. What the evidence actually shows

2. The mechanism: what's actually happening in your cells

3. Creatine and the ageing brain: the case for men over 30

4. Bone density: an underreported finding

5. Cardiovascular and metabolic markers

6. Dosing: what the clinical evidence actually supports

7. What about creatine and testosterone?

8. Safety: the honest picture

9. Frequently asked questions

10. My honest take

What the evidence actually shows

Let me start with what I consider the most important framing: creatine is not a niche compound. It's one of the most studied nutritional supplements in existence, with over 500 published trials. The question isn't whether it does anything - it clearly does - the question is how far the evidence extends beyond skeletal muscle.

The physical performance case is settled. A meta-analysis of 22 randomised controlled trials by Lemon et al. (2003) found creatine supplementation consistently increased lean mass and strength output across populations. Effect sizes for strength were typically in the range of 5-15% above placebo over 4-12 week interventions. That's not dramatic, but it's real and reproducible.

More interesting to me is the cognitive data. A 2003 RCT by Rae et al. - 45 young adult vegetarians, double-blind, crossover design - found that 5g/day of creatine monohydrate for six weeks improved working memory performance and intelligence test scores compared to placebo (p < 0.0001 for working memory). The effect was particularly pronounced in tasks requiring speed of processing. That's a well-controlled study. I don't want to oversell it - it was one population, one duration - but it's not nothing.

A 2022 meta-analysis by Avgerinos et al. pooled data from 6 randomised trials (n = 281 total) and found creatine supplementation improved memory performance in healthy adults, with the largest effects seen in older adults and those under sleep deprivation. Mean effect size was moderate (SMD = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.12-0.56). Not a revolution, but consistent with a biologically plausible mechanism.

The mechanism: what's actually happening in your cells

Creatine works primarily by replenishing phosphocreatine stores in cells. Phosphocreatine donates a phosphate group to ADP, regenerating ATP - the cell's primary energy currency. This matters in muscle tissue during high-intensity work. But it also matters in the brain, which is metabolically expensive and highly sensitive to ATP availability.

Neurons have high energy demands and limited glycolytic capacity. The phosphocreatine/creatine shuttle acts as a spatial energy buffer - moving high-energy phosphate groups from mitochondria to cytosol where ATP is consumed. When creatine stores are higher, this buffer is larger. Under conditions of cognitive stress, sleep deprivation, or ageing-related mitochondrial decline, that buffer becomes more relevant.

There's also evidence that creatine has direct neuroprotective properties independent of ATP buffering. It appears to stabilise mitochondrial membrane potential and reduce reactive oxygen species production in neural tissue - though most of this evidence comes from animal models and in vitro work. The human data on neuroprotection specifically is thin, and I'd be overstating it to claim otherwise.

In bone tissue, creatine influences osteoblast activity. Creatine kinase is expressed in osteoblasts, and phosphocreatine availability appears to support the energy-intensive process of bone mineralisation. This is the proposed mechanism behind some of the bone density findings I'll discuss shortly.

Creatine and the ageing brain: the case for men over 30

Here's why I think creatine deserves serious attention specifically for men in their 30s and beyond. Cerebral creatine levels decline with age. Mitochondrial function declines. The phosphocreatine buffer that helps neurons handle energy spikes becomes less efficient. Supplementation can partially offset this.

A study by McMorris et al. (2007) tested 20 older adults (mean age 76) in a double-blind crossover trial. After 2 weeks of 20g/day creatine, participants showed significantly improved performance on tasks measuring spatial working memory and long-term memory consolidation versus placebo (p < 0.05). The effect was more pronounced in this older group than in parallel studies with younger adults - which fits the hypothesis that supplementation matters more when baseline stores are lower.

There's also emerging data on depression. Kious et al. (2019) published a small but interesting open-label trial in treatment-resistant depression - 14 participants, 4g/day creatine as adjunct therapy - and found significant reductions in depression scores (HDRS-17) over 8 weeks. The mechanism proposed involves creatine's role in restoring prefrontal cortical energy metabolism, which is impaired in depression. I want to be clear: this is early-stage evidence. One small open-label trial is not a treatment recommendation. But the biological rationale is coherent, and larger RCTs are underway.

Bone density: an underreported finding

This is the one that surprised me most when I first went through the literature properly. Bone loss is a real concern for men after 35 - it's less discussed than in women, but the trajectory is real. You can read more about how hormonal shifts in this decade affect multiple systems in my piece on what happens to testosterone after 35: the evidence, without the panic.

A 12-month RCT by Chilibeck et al. (2005) assigned 33 older men (mean age 70) to either creatine plus resistance training or placebo plus resistance training. The creatine group showed significantly greater increases in bone mineral density at the femur compared to placebo (p < 0.05). Both groups trained identically. The difference was the creatine.

A more recent meta-analysis by Candow et al. (2021) - 9 RCTs, 327 participants - found that creatine supplementation combined with resistance exercise produced significantly greater improvements in bone mineral content and density compared to exercise alone, particularly at the femur and lumbar spine. Effect sizes were modest but consistent. The authors noted the evidence is strongest when creatine is combined with mechanical loading - supplementation alone showed weaker effects.

This is biologically coherent. Creatine supports osteoblast energy metabolism. Resistance training provides the mechanical stimulus. The two appear to work together more effectively than either alone. If you're not training at all, the bone density benefit is less clear.

Cardiovascular and metabolic markers

The cardiovascular evidence is mixed, and I'll be straight with you about that.

There's reasonable evidence that creatine supplementation reduces plasma homocysteine. Steenge et al. (2001) found that 4 weeks of creatine at 3g/day reduced fasting homocysteine by approximately 20% versus placebo in a crossover RCT (n = 18). Elevated homocysteine is associated with cardiovascular risk - this is one of the more credible mechanistic pathways for a cardiovascular benefit, though the clinical significance of this reduction is debated.

There's also some data on blood glucose regulation. A 2011 RCT by Gualano et al. (n = 25, type 2 diabetes patients, 12 weeks, 5g/day) found creatine supplementation alongside exercise significantly reduced HbA1c compared to placebo plus exercise (p < 0.05). The proposed mechanism involves enhanced GLUT-4 translocation. Interesting, but this was a diabetic population - extrapolating to healthy men requires caution.

What I won't do is claim creatine is a cardiovascular supplement in any primary sense. The evidence there is suggestive at best. It's worth knowing about, but it shouldn't be the reason you take it.

Dosing: what the clinical evidence actually supports

The loading protocol - 20g/day in divided doses for 5-7 days, then 3-5g/day maintenance - is the most studied approach and produces the fastest saturation of muscle creatine stores. Hultman et al. (1996) demonstrated that loading increased muscle creatine content by approximately 20% within 6 days, and that this could be maintained with 2g/day thereafter.

However, loading isn't necessary. The same study showed that 3g/day without loading achieves equivalent saturation within 28 days. For most people - and for the cognitive and bone-related benefits - there's no compelling reason to load. Steady-state supplementation at 3-5g/day is sufficient and avoids the gastrointestinal discomfort some people experience at 20g/day.

Most of the cognitive RCTs used 5g/day. Most of the bone density trials used 5g/day. That's the dose I'd point to as the most evidence-supported for non-exercise applications. Kojo uses 5000mg of micronised creatine monohydrate - specifically because that's the dose that appears consistently across the better-designed trials, not because it's a round number that sounds impressive.

Micronised creatine monohydrate matters for one practical reason: particle size affects solubility and, consequently, gastrointestinal tolerance. Coarser creatine can cause bloating. Micronised dissolves more cleanly. The underlying molecule is identical - this isn't a bioavailability claim, just a comfort one.

One note on form: creatine monohydrate remains the reference standard. Creatine ethyl ester, buffered creatine, and various proprietary forms have been marketed as superior - the evidence doesn't support those claims. If you want to understand why supplement marketing often diverges from the actual research, my piece on why supplement labels lie covers the mechanics of that in detail.

What about creatine and testosterone?

This comes up often, so I'll address it directly. There's a frequently cited 2009 study by van der Merwe et al. showing that creatine supplementation in college-aged rugby players increased DHT (dihydrotestosterone) - a potent androgen - by approximately 56% after a loading phase, and remained 40% above baseline after maintenance. Total testosterone didn't change significantly.

This is one study, n = 20, in young men. The DHT finding hasn't been consistently replicated. I don't think you should take creatine expecting a hormonal effect. But I also don't think you should be alarmed by the DHT finding - in healthy men, the clinical significance of a transient DHT rise is unclear. Hair loss concerns occasionally come up here; the evidence linking creatine to accelerated androgenic alopecia is theoretical, not established in clinical trials.

Safety: the honest picture

Creatine monohydrate has an unusually clean long-term safety profile for a supplement. A review by Bizzarini and De Angelis (2004) found no clinically significant adverse effects in healthy adults at doses of 3-5g/day, including in studies extending to 5 years. Serum creatinine - a kidney function marker - does rise with supplementation, but this is a direct consequence of increased creatine metabolism, not renal damage. It's a measurement artefact, not a signal of harm.

The kidney concern is persistent and worth addressing plainly: in people with healthy kidneys, there is no credible evidence that creatine supplementation causes renal damage. If you have pre-existing kidney disease, that's a different conversation - speak to your GP. For healthy men, the safety data is reassuring.

Water retention is real. Creatine increases intracellular water content in muscle - this is part of the mechanism. It's not fat gain. It's not dangerous. But if you start at 5g/day and notice your weight has increased by 1-2kg within a week, that's why.

Frequently asked questions

Does creatine actually help with mental fatigue, or is that just gym-bro extrapolation?

There's legitimate evidence here. McMorris et al. (2007) found significant cognitive improvements in older adults after 2 weeks of creatine supplementation in a double-blind crossover trial. The effect is most pronounced under conditions of sleep deprivation or high cognitive load - not necessarily at rest.

Do I need to cycle creatine?

There's no evidence that cycling is necessary or beneficial. Long-term continuous supplementation studies - some extending to 4-5 years - show no diminishing returns or adverse effects from continuous use. Bizzarini and De Angelis (2004) found no safety concerns in extended use. Cycling is a gym myth, not a clinical recommendation.

Is creatine useful if I don't do much resistance training?

For cognitive and mood-related applications, the evidence doesn't require training as a co-intervention. For bone density benefits, the data is stronger when combined with mechanical loading. Candow et al. (2021) found the bone effects were significantly attenuated without exercise. So: it depends what you're after.

What's the difference between creatine monohydrate and other forms?

Monohydrate is the most studied form by a considerable margin. A head-to-head RCT by Spillane et al. (2009) found creatine ethyl ester was actually less effective than monohydrate at increasing muscle creatine stores. Other proprietary forms lack equivalent evidence. Monohydrate remains the reference standard.

Can creatine help with age-related muscle loss specifically?

Yes, with the caveat that training is likely required for the full effect. A meta-analysis by Lanhers et al. (2017) found creatine supplementation combined with resistance training significantly attenuated lean mass loss in older adults versus training alone, with effect sizes ranging from 0.3-0.6 depending on outcome measure.

Does it matter when I take creatine?

Timing is a minor consideration at best. A small RCT by Antonio and Ciccone (2013) (n = 19) found post-exercise supplementation produced marginally better lean mass outcomes than pre-exercise, but the difference was small. Consistency matters more than timing. Take it when you'll actually remember to take it.

My honest take

I started looking into creatine for Kojo because it has the kind of evidence base I find genuinely compelling - large trials, multiple independent replications, a coherent mechanism, and a clean safety record. The physical performance data is the strongest in the supplement literature, full stop.

What I didn't expect when I went through the research properly was how interesting the non-exercise applications are. The cognitive data isn't definitive, but it's consistent enough that I take it seriously. The bone density findings surprised me. The homocysteine data is intriguing, though I hold it more loosely.

If you're a man over 30 and you're thinking about whether creatine is worth taking, my honest read is: yes, probably, if you're training in any meaningful way. The physical performance case is clear. The cognitive and bone benefits are plausible bonuses with decent supporting evidence. If you're not training at all, the case is weaker - but not absent, particularly for cognitive applications.

What I'd push back on is the idea that creatine is just a gym supplement that's been co-opted by wellness marketing. The brain and bone data came from academic researchers, not supplement companies. It's worth reading on its own terms.

One thing I always come back to: creatine is one of the few ingredients where the dose in most supplements actually matches the dose used in the trials. That's rarer than it should be. If you're curious about how common the opposite is, the piece on ubiquinol vs. ubiquinone: why the form of CoQ10 in your supplement matters after 35 gets into exactly that kind of detail for a different ingredient.

The evidence supports creatine monohydrate at 3-5g/day, taken consistently, without loading, without cycling, without drama. That's it. The rest is noise.

References (13 studies)

1. Lemon et al. (2003) - Creatine supplementation and exercise performance. PMID: 12945830

2. Rae et al. (2003) - Oral creatine monohydrate supplementation improves brain performance. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. PMID: 12722112

3. Avgerinos et al. (2022) - Effects of creatine supplementation on cognitive function in healthy individuals. Experimental Gerontology. PMID: 35263889

4. McMorris et al. (2007) - Creatine supplementation and cognitive performance in elderly individuals. Neuropsychology, Development, and Cognition. PMID: 17828627

5. Kious et al. (2019) - Creatine monohydrate augmentation of SSRI/SNRI in treatment-resistant depression. Bipolar Disorders. PMID: 31996493

6. Chilibeck et al. (2005) - Creatine monohydrate and resistance training on bone mineral density in older men. Journal of Nutrition, Health and Aging. PMID: 15142028

7. Candow et al. (2021) - Creatine supplementation and bone health. Nutrients. PMID: 33800439

8. Steenge et al. (2001) - Creatine supplementation and plasma homocysteine. Journal of Nutrition. PMID: 15640516

9. Gualano et al. (2011) - Creatine supplementation and glycaemic control in type 2 diabetes. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. PMID: 21399917

10. Hultman et al. (1996) - Muscle creatine loading in men. Journal of Applied Physiology. PMID: 9390981

11. van der Merwe et al. (2009) - Creatine supplementation and DHT in rugby players. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. PMID: 19741313

12. Bizzarini and De Angelis (2004) - Is the use of oral creatine supplementation safe? Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness. PMID: 12701815

13. Spillane et al. (2009) - The effects of creatine ethyl ester supplementation combined with resistance training. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. PMID: 19228401

14. Antonio and Ciccone (2013) - The effects of pre versus post workout supplementation of creatine monohydrate on body composition and strength. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. PMID: 23919405

15. Lanhers et al. (2017) - Creatine supplementation and lower limb strength performance in aging. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research. PMID: 28870672